Nutrition

Maternal nutrition is a critical part of healthy fetal growth and development and the prevention of pregnancy-related complications.

Researchers are still learning how nutrients are used during pregnancy, which nutrients have an increased requirement, whether supplements can prevent certain symptoms/conditions, and which nutrients – through deficiency or excess – may be harmful during pregnancy.

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Nutrition Introduction

Researchers are still learning about nutrition and pregnancy. However, it is clear a healthy diet with adequate hydration, correct balance of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins, moderate consumption of favorite foods, and regular physical activity likely leads to the most optimal outcomes during pregnancy.

Vitamins

Vitamin A (Retinoic Acid)

Vitamin A is both necessary and potentially harmful during pregnancy; however, the latter occurs mostly in the context of retinoid medications and supplemental forms – toxicity through food is very rare.

Vitamin B1 (Thiamin)

Thiamin requirements are increased during pregnancy and the woman's body appears to give thiamin to the fetus first, before the woman.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Although a slight link between Vitamin B2 deficiency and preeclampsia may exist, deficiency is very rare in the United States.

Vitamin B5 (Pantothenic Acid)

Vitamin B5 is in almost every type of food source, therefore deficiency is incredibly rare in pregnant women, as well as the general population.

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine) General

Vitamin B6 is an important nutrient for the health of the fetus and is often prescribed during pregnancy for "morning sickness" and anemia.

Vitamin B7 (Biotin)

Although not much is known regarding the role of biotin during pregnancy, it is likely necessary for cell growth – the foundation of human development.

Vitamin B9 (Folate/Folic Acid)

Supplementation of folic acid is recommended (even before pregnancy) for the prevention of neural tube defects. Folic acid may also play a role in successful implantation and placental development.

Vitamin B12 (Cobalamin)

Vitamin B12 is an important nutrient during pregnancy, especially for the developing central nervous system and some researchers compare its necessity during pregnancy to folic acid.

Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid)

Vitamin C has been theorized to potentially reduce the risk of preeclampsia, preterm birth, infections, placenta problems, and high blood pressure in pregnant women, but research remains inconsistent.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D is necessary during pregnancy for the proper absorption of calcium to grow and develop the fetal skeleton. Individuals get vitamin D from three sources: sunlight, some foods (very small amounts), and supplementation.

Vitamin E (Tocopherol)

Based on vitamin E's assessed role in the body, the vitamin may have promising potential in the fight against preeclampsia or preterm delivery. However, these claims remain controversial, and more research is necessary.

Vitamin K

Vitamin K has important blood-clotting properties during pregnancy and proper levels of this vitamin can prevent heavy bleeding during delivery.

Minerals

Calcium

While calcium is necessary during pregnancy to protect both the mother’s bones and the fetus’ skeletal development, it is debated whether all women need supplementation.

Choline

Choline has potential positive effects on neural tube development (and overall neurological development) and researchers are concerned that pregnant women do not obtain enough of the nutrient.

Chromium

Very little is known about chromium and pregnancy, and even the general daily recommended amount of chromium is debated.

Copper

Although copper is assessed to be critical for fetal brain development, not much is known about copper and its requirements during pregnancy.

Fluoride

There is currently no evidence women or their babies receive any benefit from fluoride supplementation during pregnancy.

Iodine

In the last few decades, iodine deficiency in the general population, as well as pregnant women, is reemerging due to changing diet trends. This is a new concern, as iodine is critical for human development.

Iron (and Anemia)

Iron-deficiency is the most common nutrient deficiency during pregnancy and iron supplementation is a common practice throughout the world.

Magnesium

Although research regarding the positive and negative effects of supplementation of magnesium during pregnancy are mixed, evidence is not strong enough to recommend supplementation in women who are not deficient.

Manganese

Manganese and its effects on pregnancy have not been well studied. However, supplementation is not recommended during pregnancy; further, excess non-dietary exposure to manganese could be harmful.

Potassium

Supplemental potassium is not needed during normal, healthy pregnancies beyond what is recommended for all adults. However, women with gastrointestinal illnesses may be at risk for deficiency.

Selenium

Selenium is a critical mineral necessary for thyroid and reproductive function, but its exact purpose during pregnancy is not known.

Sodium (and Salt)

Research on sodium during pregnancy is more abundant than most other nutrients, but there are still several unknowns. The pregnant body handles sodium and water differently than those who are not pregnant, and this mechanism is still not understood.

Zinc

Although zinc deficiency has been linked to decreased immune function and potentially preterm birth, supplementation may only help prevent problems if women are deficient; zinc supplementation likely has no benefit otherwise.

Other Nutrients

There is very little information regarding the needs and requirements of phosphorus and molybdenum during pregnancy.

Other Macronutrients

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates provide glucose, an important nutrient for fetal growth and development. There is no need to restrict carbohydrate intake during a normal (non-diabetic) pregnancy.

Fats

A certain amount of fat is necessary during pregnancy for fetal growth and development and the type of fat consumed is more important than the amount.

Protein

Protein is one of the few nutritional components known to be increased during pregnancy. Fortunately, this additional requirement can be easily met through specific food choices.

Omega-3 Fatty Acids

Omega-3 fatty acids are critical for a healthy pregnancy, especially for the baby’s brain and eyes. Research is inconsistent, however, regarding other possible benefits during pregnancy and whether routine supplementation is necessary.

Sugar

Pregnant women – along with most non-pregnant Americans – consume too much sugar. Excess sugar is linked to numerous health problems during pregnancy, especially those at risk for gestational diabetes or heart problems.

Fiber

Adding sources of fiber to the diet can have many benefits during pregnancy, to include the prevention and aid of constipation and hemorrhoids, and the regulation of blood sugar, hunger, and even weight.

Hydration and Thirst

Proper hydration is critical during pregnancy to support additional blood volume, amniotic fluid production, energy needs, kidney performance, avoidance of pregnancy-related side effects, and fetal growth and development.

Food Types

Dairy

The consumption of dairy products during pregnancy provides much needed nutrients (calcium, Vitamin D, protein) and is strongly linked to healthier fetal growth, development, and birth weight.

Gluten

For women with celiac disease, a strict adherence to a gluten-free diet is vital and will help prevent serious problems during pregnancy. HCPs will monitor women with celiac disease for potential nutrient deficiencies.

Eggs

Eggs are considered a vital component to a woman's diet during pregnancy based on their nutrient content, which has been shown to be beneficial for fetal growth – especially the fetal brain.

Seafood

Women should not avoid fish during pregnancy. Pregnant women can safely eat two to three servings/12 ounces per week of seafood species known to contain lower amounts of mercury.

Food Safety

Safe Food Handling

While most individuals with "food poisoning" will recover with only supportive management (i.e. fluids, rest), pregnant women may experience more severe illness, which can be prevented with proper food handling.

Food Index

While certain foods may carry higher risks of pathogens than others, women can consume almost any food they enjoyed prior to pregnancy with just a few exceptions and specific considerations.

Listeriosis (Listeria)

Listeriosis is a very rare infection in the general population, with a much higher incidence in pregnant women. Although rare, the consequences of invasive infection in a pregnant woman can result in neonatal complications.

E. coli

There are two factors to consider regarding E. coli during pregnancy: E. coli infection due to foodborne illness, and infection passed to the newborn due to E. coli present in the genital tract near delivery.

Salmonella